The Two Reformations in the 16th Century

The Problem.- In what sense the terms Renaissance, Humanism, Catholic Orthodoxy are used here.- Relations of Renaissance and Reformation.- Minor and major Reformation.- The share of the Renaissance in the religious development of Western Europe.- I Italy.- I. The Italian Humanists and the Christian Doctrine of Salvation.- 1. The new attitude of the Italian citizen towards religion and life.- 2. The circle of the Medici in Florence-Ficino and Pico — Their view of human dignity — Appreciation of the world.- 3. Freedom of the will — Immortality of the soul — Pomponazzi.- 4. The Humanists and the catholic creed — Justification-Fate, necessity and astrology — Religion as a philosophy of life.- 5. Christology — Indifference towards the sacraments.- 6. Rationalism — Providence, fate and fortune — Holy Scriptures and Classics.- 7. What happened in 15th century Italy is the reverse of what happened when pagan philosophy was conquered by Christianity.- II. Propagation and Expansion in Italy.- 1. Influence on culture — Discourses about Platonic love — Religion in Castiglione’s Del Cortigiano.- 2. Little value ascribed to religion in education — Criticism of orthodoxy in Pulci’s writings — Disbelief in miracles.- 3. Ariosto and orthodoxy.- 4. Condemnation of Humanism by the Church — Heretics in Italy — Revival of Catholicism.- 5. Influence of new views in painting — The Sistine Chapel — Botticelli -Piero di Cosino — Leonardo da Vinci — The story of “Hercules at the cross-roads” — The religion of Titian.- 6. Christian Humanism with Michelangelo — The Sistine Chapel — The Medici tomb.- 7. Vittoria Colonna and the catholic revival — The sermons of Ochino — The “Last Judgment” of Michelangelo.- II Western Europe.- III. Orthodox Catholicism and its early Opponents.- 1. The contents of Orthodoxy in the Catholic Church about 1500 — The drama of Everyman.- 2. Ideas deviating from orthodoxy before the Reformation — Wessel Gansfort and others.- 3. Humanism in Paris — England: John Colet.- IV. Erasmus.- 1. Scientific importance — “Regeneration of Christendom” -Moral writings.- 2. His conception of the Church — Criticism of the clergy — Moralism — Erasmus and the Bible — Knowledge and education — Real piety is mastering the passions.- 3. Erasmus and monkish life — The value of asceticism — The value of the sermon.- 4. Dignity of man and original sin — Grace — Penance — Veneration of Saints — Attitude towards life after death.- 5. Indifference about dogmas — Sacraments are ceremonies — How to prepare oneself for death — No belief in the devil.- 6. True piety is obedience to the Evangelical commandments — “The Religious Banquet” — Appreciation of the Classics — Influence of Erasmus in the 16th century.- V. Erasmus’s Contemporaries.- 1. Thomas More and the Italians — His attitude towards orthodoxy — The religion in Utopia.- 2. Lefèvre d’Etaples — The theological Faculty condemns Lefèure.- 3. Disciples in France of the Classics — Briçonnet tries to reform the Divine Service — He fails.- 4. Budé halfway between Classics, Orthodoxy and Reformation.- 5. The German Humanists and Erasmus — Mutianus, Paracelsus, Ulrich von Hutten.- 6. Veneration of the Classics in Germany — Humanists in Erfurt and Gotha — Radicalism in the Netherlands.- 7. Painting and the major Reformation — Bosch — Dürer — Lucas van Ley den.- VI. Luther.- 1. Pre-Reformation — Luther looks for help to Erasmus.- 2. Different religious attitudes of Luther and Erasmus — The letter of Spalatinus — Erasmus wants to protect Luther — The minor Reformation.- 3. Differences between Luther and Erasmus: conceptions of God — Of grace — Of the sacraments — Of Salvation — Of the Church.- 4. Different interpretation of truth — The Holy Scriptures.- 5. Zwingli disciple of the Classics and of Luther — Melanchthon.- VII. The Baptists, Sebastian Franck and Marguerite d’Angouleme.- 1. The Baptists in relation to the Reformation and Humanism — Spiritualists.- 2. Sebastian Franck — The sacraments — His antropology — His rationalism.- 3. Marguerite d’Angoulême disciple of Lefeere d’ Etaples And of Erasmus — Her attitude towards Orthodoxy.- VIII. Christian Humanism in France.- 1. The religion of Calvin — Difference from Humanist religion.- 2. Rabelais — Influence of Platonism and Erasmus — Miracles — The Bible — His A nthropology — Immortality of the soul — Attitude towards Calvinism.- 3. Castellio — Christianity a doctrine of life — The Scriptures.- 4. The religious attitude of Michel de l’Hospital.- 5. Ronsard against the Huguenots — His Platonism — Aristotelism in the “Hymns”.- IX. In the Netherlands.- 1. Cassander tries to mediate between Catholicism and Protestantism.- 2. Coornhert — True piety is obedience to the Evangelical commandments — Perfectibility of man.- 3. Lipsius — His Christian stoicism — Adept of the Classics — Adaption to Protestantism and Catholicism.- 4. The major Reformation and the arts in France — In Spain — In the Netherlands — Bruegel.- X. Christian Humanism in England.- 1. Characteristics of the Reformation in England. — Important influence of Erasmus — The Established Church under Elizabeth — Manifold opinions possible — Sir Philip Sidney.- 2. Spenser and Puritanism — His Platonism — Philosophy prevails in his religion — Humanism in his “Hymns”.- 3. Shakespeare — Indefiniteness of his religion — His conception of the Divine — His anthropology — Grace and forgiveness — Sinfulness of man — The Sacraments — The Bible — The clergy — Life after death.- XI. Dolet, Marlowe, Montaigne and Bodin.- 1. Halfway adepts of the major Reformation — The major Reformation among educated people in France.- 2. Dolet disciple of Protestantism and Humanism — Immortality — Providence and fate — Christianity seen relatively.- 3. Des Périers and “Cymbalum mundi”.- 4. Marlowe — Appreciation of the strong individuum — His disbelief in Christian dogmas.- 5. Montaigne — Indifference towards catholic dogmas and rituals — His moralism — Natural religion — His attitude towards death and life after death — Anthropology.- 6. Bodin -All religions of relative value — His Theism — His conception of man and Christ.- Conclusion: Disciples of the major Reformation are to be found both in the catholic and the protestant churches.